In a contrafactual supposition, he paints a picture of a woman cuius in hortos, domum, Baias iure suo libidines omnium commearent, “into whose gardens, house, and place at Baiae the sexual passions of all could come and go of their own accord” (Cael. Munich: n.p., 25–41.Find this resource: Purcell, Nicholas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Find this resource: Farrar, Linda. Modern and fully equipped, rooms at the Horti 14 Borgo Trastevere come with air conditioning, free WiFi, a mini-bar and flat-screen TV with Sky channels. New Rochelle, NY: Caratzas Brothers.Find this resource: Kuttner, Ann. 3rd ed. In his in-depth study of the Lex Lucerina, Bodel argues that inscriptions found on the Esquiline, which recorded prohibitions against creating dumping grounds for refuse and corpses, are evidence that illegal disposal of bodies in this area was a serious problem (Bodel 1994, 44; Purcell 1987, 37). Paris: Fayard.Find this resource: Harrison, Robert Pogue. Volume 2: Books III–IV. To complement these definitions, archaeological evidence allows us to categorize Roman gardens into three types, depending on their relationship to the adjacent architecture: (1) gardens that surround a structure; (2) gardens that are attached to a structure and are more intensively planted; and (3) gardens located within an architectural structure (Nielson 2013, 41). Parts of the marble decoration of the podium or of the inner pedestals have been found at different times during the 16th, 17th and 19th centuries. The Gardens of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and the Villas Destroyed by Vesuvius. Most of the poem is devoted to the activities of the spring (10.77–310) and the produce of the summer (10.311–422). While care must be taken so as not to impart modern attitudes toward slavery in the interpretation of Roman gardens, we must also resist reinscribing the literature that effaces this material reality. into three categories—private, imperial, and public— “all which put a bit of nature in the city” (Grimal 1984, 16). Whether Umbricius or his audience would be satisfied with such a modest plot is immaterial; in order for the satire to deliver its sting (est aliquid, quocumque loco, quocumque recessu,/unius sese dominum fecisse lacertae, “It’s something, wherever you are, however remote, to make yourself the master of a single lizard,” 3.230–231), the description of the hortulus needs to be as accurate as possible. Such studies address the implications of these interactions for ancient and modern contexts. They are beside the Domus Tiberiana on the top of the hill. So long as physical manifestations of ancient Roman gardens remain unrecoverable, the question of what Roman gardens are will always be accompanied by evidence for what Roman gardens mean. 1.11.37), and in his old age he mourns that he cannot retire to the gardens he once had (sed modo, quos habui, uacuos secedere in hortos, Tr. Gardens which Maecenas laid out on the Esquiline, on the Servian agger and the adjacent necropolis, thus transforming this unsavoury region into a beautiful promenade (Hor. “Just What Is a Garden?” Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes 27.1: 61–76.Find this resource: Thomas, Richard F. 1987. 1999. Inherent in the morally freighted garden rhetoric exemplified here are some of the most pressing questions about environmental sustainability. 2013. Thomas Ashby. According to American environmentalist Wendell Berry, such contradictions as these are at the heart of the crisis of environmental sustainability: “The split between what we think and what we do is profound” (1977, 18). Contrary to this judgment, the rest of Book 19 is taken up with a catalogue of vegetables, their varieties (often non-Italic), and their preparation. The death of Caesar in 44 BC caused the end of Sallust's political career. Rome Reborn. Ross (1998) explores the landscape gardens of eighteenth-century England to document the various relations between gardens and the art of painting. Les Jardins Romains. While the passage from the Georgics describes the contents of a garden, Columella’s poem details the activities of gardening in an exceptional poem that interrupts his treatise on agriculture. The Roman Book of Gardening. Primary evidence for the physical features of gardens consists of architectural specimens, furniture, sculptures, altars, sundials, planters, pots, pools, and water fountains, as well as gardening tools and implements. Hortus denotes a kitchen garden near the house for growing vegetables; horti are large-scale pleasure grounds or parks, privately owned but sometimes open to public use. Indeed, it is so that houses facing every part of the sky may have a wintery summer, a summery winter, and not with its normal changes is a year passed within the homes of such men. The Gardens of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and the Villas Destroyed by Vesuvius. These are set in niches where earlier painters would have normally rendered urns instead of plants. Juvenal describes her waiting “with her bridal veil ready and a purple marriage couch set up in the gardens in full view” (dudum sedet illa parato / flammeolo Tyriusque palam genialis in hortis, 10.333–334); and Tacitus devotes the end of Annals Book 11 to this illegal marriage and her ultimate demise in the gardens of Lucullus (for an analysis see von Stackelberg 2009b). 1.7), a priority repeated by the interlocutor Stolo in Varro’s Res Rusticae (secundus ubi hortus inriguus, “where next the watered garden…” R. 1.7.9). 38). Figure 1: Primaporta, Villa of Livia, garden room (now Rome, Palazzo Massimo). Media in category "Horti Sallustiani (Rome)" The following 4 files are in this category, out of 4 total. 1984. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 29–48.Find this resource: Jashemski, Wilhelmina F. 1992. The rapidly growing field of classical reception studies aims to explore the transmission, interpretation, rewriting, and rethinking of ancient Greek and Roman material as it is reworked in the contexts of other cultures. To be sure, women are a source of anxiety, and although gardens are not intrinsically evil, they readily host activities of all sorts. Gardens of Maecenas. The design of the poem follows the course of a solar year, beginning with the autumnal equinox (10.41–54); in winter, the farmer prepares the soil (10.55–76). All translations in the article are my own unless otherwise indicated. The 4-star hotel offers a garden, a restaurant and bar. Pleasure gardens, or horti, offered elite citizens of ancient Rome a retreat from the noise and grime of the city, where they could take their leisure and even conduct business amid lovely landscaping, architecture, and sculpture. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider, 345–361.Find this resource: Nielson, Inge. His job is to ward off thieves and pests, but he is particularly menaced by witches who visit the grounds to practice necromancy. Slavery and Society at Rome. Instead the old man planted herbs, lilies, and vervain, and he harvested roses in the spring, apples in the autumn; even in winter he could find hyacinth blooming. 2001. Catullus provides a reason for disapproval; he looks for his missing friend Camerius among the women hanging around the porticus Pompeiana, who answer him by lasciviously baring their breasts (55.6–12). Yet the intervening lines are among the most descriptive of a garden in Latin literature: rose beds, endive growing thanks to irrigation, parsley, squash, narcissus, acanthus, ivy, myrtle (4.119–124). London: Duckworth.Find this resource: Pagán, Victoria E. 2015. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Find this resource: Bergmann, Bettina. The nymphaeum of Ulysses and Polyphemus, with a waterfall and central basin, recreated an illusion of a natural grotto opening out into a garden. until the first half of the second century c.e. 1981. Geneva: Foundation Hardt.Find this resource: Cossarini, A. Yet its value as a source lies in the interplay between tradition and originality and in the marked departure from the conventions of the art that reveal the general form of a garden. All Rights Reserved. “New Perspectives on the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale.” In Bettina Bergmann, Stefano De Caro, Joan R. Mertens, and Rudolf Meyer, eds., Roman Frescoes from Boscoreale: The Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor in Reality and Virtual Reality. Sources from the Neronian period also demonstrate this principle of departure from generic convention. His rampant invective reaches its peak with a vivid description of a woman who publicly leads the life of a meretrix, “courtesan,” in the habit of attending dinner parties si hoc in urbe, si in hortis, si in Baiarum illa celebritate faciat, “in the city, in her gardens, amid the crowd at Baiae” (Cael. They ran off, one dropping her false teeth, the other her wig, and the fifty-line poem ends with a joke and a laugh. that I complete in poetic measures those parts of the Georgics left which Vergil himself indicated he would leave to be dealt with by later writers. Nature, Utopia, and the Garden, Giesecke and Jacobs are succinct: “Since the garden and gardening practices define humanity’s relation to the natural environment, it is of utmost importance to retrace and re-examine the garden’s symbolism, history, and life-sustaining potency” (2012, 14). The site was coveted by ancient Romans, who built villas and gardens (horti) here. 1993. The obelisk, 13.91 meters high, of red granite, is Egyptian-Roman because it was engraved in ancient times in Rome with inscriptions badly copied by the monolith of Piazza del Popolo. Alive in the poem are the traditional exaggerations of Priapean poetry and invective against women; perhaps most tellingly, however, the poem bears witness to a change in land use. Neque enim terras tibi sed formam aliquam ad eximiam pulchritudinem pictam uideberis cernere: ea uarietate, ea descriptione, quocumque inciderint oculi, reficientur. If he were not nearing the end of his poem, he says, forsitan et pinguis hortos quae cura colendi/ornaret canerem, “Perhaps, too, I might be singing what careful tillage decks rich gardens” (4.118–119). Vol. seruatur rigor aestibus excogitaturque ut alienis mensibus nix algeat. Even more so than the passage from the Georgics, the wall painting can be regarded as impossibly idealized and pointedly fictitious; winds blow from different directions and fruits blossom and ripen simultaneously. 1994. The vast residential compound spread out on the Esquiline Hill, one of the seven hills on which the city was originally built, in the area around the current Piazza Vittorio … 2001. The Horti Liciniani were a set of gardens in ancient Rome originally belonging to the gens Licinia. The conclusion suggests two directions for further study. “Types of Gardens.” In Kathryn Gleason, ed., A Cultural History of Gardens in Antiquity. Maddalena Cima, "Gli Horti Liciniani: una residenza imperiale nella tarda antichità", in, Learn how and when to remove this template message, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horti_Liciniani&oldid=987064605, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 4 November 2020, at 18:04. Horti Romani: Atti di Convegno Internazionale Roma, 4–6 maggio 1995. Gardens surpass all other aspects of agriculture: [N]ec uero segetibus solum et pratis et uineis et arbustis res rusticae laetae sunt, sed hortis etiam et pomariis, “There is joy not only in fields, meadows, vineyards and woodlands, but also in gardens and orchards” (Sen. 54). Balustrades of lattice fences or stone wall with pergolas and gates are represented in an axonometric plan, while the interiors of the gardens are neatly arranged with pools, fountains, statues, vases, and orderly plantings of trees and bushes. The ironic tones of satire can also illuminate the character of the simple hortus. It was called Orti, rather than villa, because this was the word used by the ancient Romans for their suburban residences (e.g. Much of our physical evidence comes from Pompeii, Herculaneum, Boscoreale, Oplontis, and other sites in Campania preserved by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 c.e. The landscaped pleasure gardens occupied a large area in the northwestern sector of Rome, in what would become Region VI, between the Pincian and Quirinal hills, near the Via Salaria and later Porta Salaria. Evidence from the provinces supplements the abundance of material from Rome and Campania. In the Roman world, horticulture (the art and practice of garden cultivation and management) is one aspect of the larger enterprise of farming and agriculture. As we have seen, Columella undertook to complete the Georgics; in doing so, he imitated Vergil in notable ways (Cossarini 1977; Noè 2002, 163). 122.8). Excavated looms and toys attest that gardens were places for work and play; bones indicate the types of meats eaten at meals (Jashemski 1992, 104–105). Yet, because of the modern expansion of the city after 1871 (when Rome began to be developed as capital of unified Italy), the ancient topography has been irrevocably altered with the filling of the valley between the Pincio and Quirinal hills where these horti existed. His trees bore fruit such as pears and plums, and the plane tree provided shade for drinking (4.130–146). She then completed the catalogue with evidence of flora and fauna in the paintings of Vesuvian gardens and vineyards (Jashemski 1993, 405–407). Gardens and gardening are not possible in exile; they belong to the civilized, Roman world. Cicero Cato Maior De Senectute. Kuttner identifies a radical change in the 30s and 20s b.c.e.from this preoccupation with architecture to attention to the individual morphologies of fruits, flowers, and leaves of actual plant species, which she attributes to the recent arrival in Rome of the illustrated plant gazetteer of Dioscurides (1999, 29). Gardens are necessary. “Meaning.” In Kathryn Gleason, ed., A Cultural History of Gardens in Antiquity. Quirinal. “Prose into Poetry: Tradition and Meaning in Virgil’s Georgics.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 91: 229–260.Find this resource: Thomas, Richard F. 1988. Before the founding of Rome, each of the seven hills boasted its own small settlement.The groups of people interacted with each other and eventually merged together, symbolized by the construction of the Servian Walls around the seven traditional hills of Rome. Pugh (1988) offers one of the earliest cultural interpretations of gardens, and his insights still resonate. in the regions of Latium and Campania adhere to and diverge from generic conventions, distort and exaggerate their subject, and provide social commentary on the purposes and meanings of gardens. As Cicero’s digression commemorates rather than duplicates Cato the Elder’s treatise, so frescoes that order plants and artifacts according to compositional conventions repeat and echo the contents of a garden but “at varying scales and in different planes of reality” (Bergmann 2010, 31). In the third century, these were owned by the Emperor Gallienus, himself a member of the gens. 2013. 21), the branch of the Anio Vetus built by Augustus. Regardless of the medium, all these sources are subject to the cardinal methodological difficulty that besets the study of classical antiquity, namely the problem of ascertaining normative principles from exceptional instances. 1998. The name “Pincian” comes from one of the families that settled here: the Pincii. The Temple of Divus Hadrianus on the Campus Martius was dedicated by Antoninus Pius in 145 A.D. 1998. Garden—Nature—Language. “Looking Outside Inside: Ancient Roman Garden Rooms.” Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes 19: 7–35.Find this resource: Landgren, Lena. Pleasure gardens, or horti, offered elite citizens of ancient Rome a retreat from the noise and grime of the city, where they could take their leisure and even conduct business amid lovely landscaping, architecture, and sculpture. The modern study of Roman gardens began in 1943 with the publication of Grimal’s Les Jardins Romains, revised in 1984 for the third and final time so as to take into account forty years’ worth of archaeological advances. What Gardens Mean. 2015. “Decline and Fall: The Roman Garden of Louise du Pont Crowninshield.” In Victoria E. Pagán, Judith W. Page, and Brigitte Weltman-Aron, eds., Disciples of Flora: Gardens in History and Culture. Roman Painting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Find this resource: St-Denis, Bernard. Earth Perfect? Our earliest prose on the subject of agriculture, Cato the Elder’s De Agri Cultura, is quoted or disputed by Varro ten times in Book 1 of his Res Rusticae (R. 7.1, 9; 18.1, 3; 19.1; 22.3; 24.1, 3; 58; 60). and trans. 3): ut poeticis numeris explerem Georgici carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse Vergilius significauerat, posteris se memorandas relinquere. The second style is specific in its depiction of architectural structures, materials, surfaces, configurations, and perspectives. Slave quarters are identifiable in the villas excavated in Campania (Bradley 1994, 60, 85), although these are surely not the ergastula Columella recommends for the chained slaves, the underground prisons with narrow windows so high from the ground that they cannot be reached by hand (Col. 1.6.3). In describing his ideal farm in the De Agri Cultura, Cato the Elder lists the watered garden second only to the vineyard (secundo loco hortus inriguus, “the watered garden in second place,” Agr. The static nature of this evidence, derived from a specific place captured at a specific time, makes it more difficult to discern dynamic processes such as fluctuating economies, changing tastes, or even changes in ownership that can impact a garden’s design, execution, and maintenance (on the influence of changes in the social composition of the elite, see Wallace-Hadrill 1998). Their efforts sometimes yielded carbonized roots, ancient pollen, seeds, fruit, bacteria, and even insects (Jashemski 1992, 107). Horace’s poem, with its overblown witchcraft, underscores the favor Maecenas performed for the citizens of Rome by transforming this sketchy part of town into a respectable garden estate. 44.2). The closing remark occurs in isolation and is for Shackleton Bailey “rather obscure” (2001, 159n3); fairly so, since the emphatic position and stylistically punctual litotes, deerit nihil, give the sentence an aphoristic quality that is readily detachable and all the more universally applicable to circumstances beyond Varro’s Res Rusticae or Caesar’s plans for public libraries. Horti Maecenatis. 2013. 2014. London: Bloomsbury, 119–134.Find this resource: von Stackelberg, Katharine. 2004. After Grimal and Jashemski, Horti Romani is the third major publication to influence the course of modern scholarship on Roman gardens (Cima and La Rocca 1998). 1977. Cicero: Letters to Friends, Vol. Such all-encompassing moral codes hedge any objections to attitudes (whether good, bad, or neutral) about the natural environment. 2007. Continuities in conception and design are also elucidated by cross-cultural comparisons across the Mediterranean from the archaic period to late antiquity, as demonstrated by the contributions in Le jardin dans l’antiquité (Coleman 2014). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Find this resource: Shackleton Bailey, D. R., ed. So while Cicero might equivocate about the moral integrity of the gardens that Pompey built in the heart of Rome, the poets are frank about the sexual lure of the place (for an interpretation of the design of the Porticus Pompeiana, see Gleason 1994). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Find this resource: Pugh, Simon. 21.5, 6): Άπτόμενος δὲ συντονώτερον πορισμοῦ τὴν μὲν γεωργίαν μᾶλλον ἡγεῖτο διαγωγὴν ἢ πρόσοδον, εἰς δ᾽ἀσφαλῆ πράγματα καὶ βέβαια κατατιθέμενος τὰς ἀφορμὰς ἐκτᾶτο λίμνας, … ἐχρήσατο δὲ καὶ τῷ διαβεβλημένῳ μάλιστα τῶν δανεισμῶν ἐπὶ ναυτικοῖς …, However, as he applied himself more strenuously to money-getting, he came to regard agriculture as more entertaining than profitable, and invested his capital in business that was safe and sure. “The Afterlife of Little Sparta.” In Victoria E. Pagán, Judith W. Page, and Brigitte Weltman-Aron, eds., Disciples of Flora: Gardens in History and Culture. When Pompey visited, he chided Lucullus for building a house that was well situated for the summer but uninhabitable in winter. Although short-lived (use was discontinued immediately after Nero’s death in 68 c.e. 12.21, 22), followed by a letter urging Atticus to haggle the price (Att. de aq. Rather than focus on historical origins and development, Hunt studies how gardens are changed and reformulated once the designer’s work is done. The extensive remains of gardens excavated at Conimbriga in Portugal and Fishbourne in Britain illuminate those features of Roman gardens that transcend location (see Cunliffe 1971; de Alarcão and Etienne 1981; Bowe 2004, 111–139). It played host to the October 1999 Kunming International Horticulture Exposition Brachybacterium horti is a species of Gram positive, … “Tomb and Suburb.” In H. von Hesberg and P. Zanker, eds., Römische Gräberstraßen: Selbstdarstellung, Status, Standard. The Horti Caesaris (Gardens of Caesar) was the name of two parks belonging to Julius Caesar in Rome. 2013. He devotes as much space to the character and treatment of slaves as to the number of slaves required, against the calculations of Cato the Elder (R. 1.17.3–1.18). Fig. 2004. In the Neronian period, Seneca the Younger describes the damaging effects of luxury on the soul that desires to violate nature by moving earth, closing up the sea, rerouting rivers, and suspending groves (Ira 1.21.1). Between the first and third editions of Grimal’s seminal work, Jashemski carried out extensive field work in Campania, beginning in 1961 and resulting in the first volume of The Gardens of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and the Villas Destroyed by Vesuvius in 1979 and the second volume in 1993. New Rochelle, NY: Caratzas Brothers.Find this resource: Jashemski, Wilhelmina F. 1981. PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). 2009. Not only do these small paintings with their exaggerations and distortions of scale manifest the ideal arrangement of a garden, they also bring to life the dialogue between the artificial and the natural that defines the art of gardening. Twenty-one contributions from an international conference held in 1995 take the gardens in the city of Rome as starting points, and therefore they are successors to Grimal. The Archaeology of Garden and Field. The viewer, inside the room, thus occupies the uncultivated space with oak and fir but has a view of the cultivated garden, with its roses, irises, oleander, chamomile, and poppies, beyond the double fence that dominates the bottom of the scene. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Find this resource: Powell, J. G. F. 1988. “The Campanian Peristyle Garden.” In Elisabeth MacDougall and Wilhelmina Jashemski, eds., Ancient Roman Gardens. Nature, Utopia, and the Garden. Horticulture and the Roman Shaping of Nature. Slavery underpinned Roman economy and society, and it did not need to be announced or denounced regularly in the sources; as Dewar observes of the Romans, “they rarely question—and do not question for long—the morality of slavery” (Dewar 2014, 61). In the end, however, Cicero agrees to terms and has the cash for a property he prefers over Drusus’s gardens (Drusianis uero hortis multo antepono neque sunt umquam comparati, “I certainly prefer the property far above Drusus’s; they have never been regarded as comparable,” Att.
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